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enemata； poultices and plasters； and they knew the use of opium； hemlock；
the copper salts； squills and castor oil。 Surgery was not very highly
developed； but the knife and actual cautery were freely used。 Ophthalmic
surgery was practiced by specialists； and there are many prescriptions in
the papyri for ophthalmia。
One department of Egyptian medicine reached a high stage of
development； vis。； hygiene。 Cleanliness of the dwellings； of the cities and
of the person was regulated by law； and the priests set a splendid example
in their frequent ablutions； shaving of the entire body； and the spotless
cleanliness of their clothing。 As Diodorus remarks； so evenly ordered was
their whole manner of life that it was as if arranged by a learned physician
rather than by a lawgiver。
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Two world…wide modes of practice found their earliest illustration in
ancient Egypt。 Magic； the first of these； represented the attitude of
primitive man to nature； and really was his religion。 He had no idea of
immutable laws； but regarded the world about him as changeable and
fickle like himself； and 〃to make life go as he wished； he must be able to
please and propitiate or to coerce these forces outside himself。〃＇8＇
＇8＇ L。 Thorndike： The Place of Magic in the Intellectual History of
Europe； New York； 1905； p。 29。
The point of interest to us is that in the Pyramid Texts〃the oldest
chapter in human thinking preserved to us； the remotest reach in the
intellectual history of man which we are now able to discern〃＇9＇ one of
their six…fold contents relates to the practice of magic。 A deep belief
existed as to its efficacy； particularly in guiding the dead； who were said to
be glorious by reason of mouths equipped with the charms； prayers and
ritual of the Pyramid Texts； armed with which alone could the soul escape
the innumerable dangers and ordeals of the passage through another world。
Man has never lost his belief in the efficacy of magic； in the widest sense
of the term。 Only a very few of the most intellectual nations have escaped
from its shackles。 Nobody else has so clearly expressed the origins and
relations of magic as Pliny in his 〃Natural History。〃＇10＇ 〃Now； if a man
consider the thing well； no marvaile it is that it hath continued thus in so
great request and authoritie； for it is the onely Science which seemeth to
comprise in itselfe three possessions besides； which have the command
and rule of mans mind above any other whatsoever。 For to begin withall；
no man doubteth but that Magicke tooke root first； and proceeded from
Physicke； under the presence of maintaining health； curing； and preventing
diseases： things plausible to the world； crept and insinuated farther into the
heart of man； with a deepe conceit of some high and divine matter therein
more than ordinarie； and in comparison whereof； all other Physicke was
but basely accounted。 And having thus made way and entrance； the better
to fortifie it selfe； and to give a goodly colour and lustre to those fair and
flattering promises of things； which our nature is most given to hearken
after； on goeth the habite also and cloake of religion： a point； I may tell
you； that even in these daies holdeth captivate the spirit of man； and
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
draweth away with it a greater part of the world； and nothing so much。 But
not content with this successe and good proceeding； to gather more
strength and win a greater name； shee entermingled with medicinable
receipts and religious ceremonies； the skill of Astrologie and arts
Mathematicall； presuming upon this； That all men by nature are very
curious and desirous to know their future fortunes； and what shall betide
them hereafter； persuading themselves； that all such foreknowledge
dependeth upon the course and influence of the starres； which give the
truest and most certain light of things to come。 Being thus wholly
possessed of men； and having their senses and understanding by this
meanes fast ynough bound with three sure chains； no marvell if this art
grew in processe of time to such an head； that it was and is at this day
reputed by most nations of the earth for the paragon and cheefe of all
sciences： insomuch as the mightie kings and monarchs of the Levant are
altogether ruled and governed thereby。〃
＇9＇ Breasted： Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt；
New York； 1912； p。 84。
＇10＇ The Historie of the World； commonly called the Naturall Historie
of C。 Plinius Secundus； translated into English by Philemon Holland；
Doctor in Physieke； London； 1601； Vol。 II； p。 371； Bk。 XXX； Chap。 I； Sect。
1。
The second world…wide practice which finds its earliest record among
the Egyptians is the use secretions and parts of the animal body as
medicine。 The practice was one of great antiquity with primitive man； but
the papyri already mentioned contain the earliest known records。 Saliva；
urine； bile； faeces； various parts of the body； dried and powdered； worms；
insects； snakes were important ingredients in the pharmacopoeia。 The
practice became very widespread throughout the ancient world。 Its extent
and importance may be best gathered from chapters VII and VIII in the
28th book of Pliny's 〃Natural History。〃 Several remedies are mentioned as
derived from man； others from the elephant； lion； camel； crocodile； and
some seventy…nine are prepared from the hyaena。 The practice was widely
prevalent throughout the Middle Ages； and the pharmacopoeia of the
seventeenth and even of the eighteenth century contains many
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extraordinary ingredients。 〃The Royal Pharmacopoeia〃 of Moses Charras
（London ed。； 1678）； the most scientific work of the day； is full of
organotherapy and directions for the preparation of medicines from the
most loathsome excretions。 A curious thing is that with the discoveries of
the mummies a belief arose as to the great efficacy of powdered mummy
in various maladies。 As Sir Thomas Browne remarks in his 〃Urn Burial〃：
〃Mummy has become merchandize。 Mizraim cures wounds； and Pharaoh
is sold for balsams。〃
One formula in everyday use has come to us in a curious way from the
Egyptians。 In the Osiris myth； the youthful Horus loses an eye in his battle
with Set。 This eye； the symbol of sacrifice； became； next to the sacred
beetle； the most common talisman of the country； and all museums are rich
in models of the Horus eye in glass or stone。
〃When alchemy or chemistry； which had its cradle in Egypt； and
derived its name from Khami； an old title for this country； passed to the
hands of the Greeks； and later of the Arabs； this sign passed with it。 It was
al