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as brilliant as those of the East。 Remarkable schools of medicine were
founded at Seville； Toledo and Cordova。 The most famous of the
professors were Averroes； Albucasis and Avenzoar。 Albucasis was 〃the
Arabian restorer of surgery。〃 Averroes； called in the Middle Ages 〃the Soul
of Aristotle〃 or 〃the Commentator；〃 is better known today among
philosophers than physicians。 On the revival of Moslem orthodoxy he fell
upon evil days； was persecuted as a free…thinker； and the saying is
attributed to him〃Sit anima mea cum philosophic。〃
Arabian medicine had certain very definite characteristics： the basis
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was Greek； derived from translations of the works of Hippocrates and
Galen。 No contributions were made to anatomy； as dissections were
prohibited； nor to physiology； and the pathology was practically that of
Galen。 Certain new and important diseases were described； a number of
new and active remedies were introduced； chiefly from the vegetable
kingdom。 The Arabian hospitals were well organized and were deservedly
famous。 No such hospital exists today in Cairo as that which was built by
al…Mansur Gilafun in 1283。 The description of it by Makrizi； quoted by
Neuburger；＇16＇ reads like that of a twentieth century institution with
hospital units。
＇16＇ 〃I have founded this institution for my equals and for those
beneath me； it is intended for rulers and subjects； for soldiers and for the
emir； for great and small； freemen and slaves； men and women。〃 〃He
ordered medicaments； physicians and everything else that could be
required by anyone in any form of sickness； placed male and female
attendants at the disposal of the patients； determined their pay； provided
beds for patients and supplied them with every kind of covering that could
be required in any complaint。 Every class of patient was accorded separate
accommodation： the four halls of the hospital were set apart for those with
fever and similar complaints； one part of the building was reserved for
eye…patients； one for the wounded； one for those suffering from diarrhoea；
one for women； a room for convalescents was divided into two parts； one
for men and one for women。 Water was laid on to all these departments。
One room was set apart for cooking food； preparing medicine and cooking
syrups； another for the compounding of confections； balsams； eye…salves；
etc。 The head…physician had an apartment to himself wherein he delivered
medical lectures。 The number of patients was unlimited； every sick or poor
person who came found admittance； nor was the duration of his stay
restricted； and even those who were sick at home were supplied with every
necessity。〃Makrizi。
〃In later times this hospital was much extended and improved。 The
nursing was admirable and no stint was made of drugs and appliances；
each patient was provided with means upon leaving so that he should not
require immediately to undertake heavy work。〃 Neuburger： History of
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Medicine； Vol。 1； p。 378。
It was in the domain of chemistry that the Arabs made the greatest
advances。 You may remember that； in Egypt； chemistry had already made
considerable strides； and I alluded to Prof。 Elliot Smith's view that one of
the great leaps in civilization was the discovery in the Nile Valley of the
metallurgy of copper。 In the brilliant period of the Ptolemies； both
chemistry and pharmacology were studied； and it seems not improbable
that； when the Arabs took Alexandria in the year 640； there were still
many workers in these subjects。
The most famous of those early Arabic writers is the somewhat
mythical Geber； who lived in the first half of the eighth century； and
whose writings had an extraordinary influence throughout the Middle
Ages。 The whole story of Geber is discussed by Berthelot in his 〃La
chimie au moyen age〃 （Paris； 1896）。 The transmission of Arabian science
to the Occident began with the Crusades； though earlier a filtering of
important knowledge in mathematics and astronomy had reached Southern
and Middle Europe through Spain。 Among the translators several names
stand out prominently。 Gerbert； who became later Pope Sylvester II； is said
to have given us our present Arabic figures。 You may read the story of his
remarkable life in Taylor；＇17＇ who says he was 〃the first mind of his time；
its greatest teacher； its most eager learner； and most universal scholar。〃 But
he does not seem to have done much directly for medicine。
＇17＇ The Mediaeval Mind； Vol。 I； p。 280。
The Graeco…Arabic learning passed into Europe through two sources。
As I have already mentioned； Constantinus Africanus； a North African
Christian monk； widely travelled and learned in languages； came to
Salernum and translated many works from Arabic into Latin； particularly
those of Hippocrates and Galen。 The 〃Pantegni〃 of the latter became one
of the most popular text…books of the Middle Ages。 A long list of other
works which he translated is given by Steinschneider。＇17a＇ It is not
unlikely that Arabic medicine had already found its way to Salernum
before the time of Constantine； but the influence of his translations upon
the later Middle Ages was very great。
＇17a＇ Steinschneider： Virchow's Arch。； Berl。； 1867； xxxvii； 351。
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The second was a more important source through the Latin translators
in Spain； particularly in Toledo； where； from the middle of the twelfth till
the middle of the thirteenth century； an extraordinary number of Arabic
works in philosophy； mathematics and astronomy were translated。 Among
the translators； Gerard of Cremona is prominent； and has been called the
〃Father of Translators。〃 He was one of the brightest intelligences of the
Middle Ages； and did a work of the first importance to science； through
the extraordinary variety of material he put in circulation。 Translations； not
only of the medical writers； but of an indiscriminate crowd of authors in
philosophy and general literature； came from his pen。 He furnished one of
the first translations of the famous 〃Almagest〃 of Ptolemy； which opened
the eyes of his contemporaries to the value of the Alexandrian
astronomy。＇18＇ Leclerc gives a list of seventy…one works from his hand。
＇18＇ For an account of that remarkable work see German translation by
Manitius； Leipzig； 1912。
Many of the translators of the period were Jews； and many of the
works were translated from Hebrew into Latin。 For years Arabic had been
the learned language of the Jews； and in a large measure it was through
them that the Arabic knowledge and the translations passed into South and
Central Europe。
The Arab writer whose influe