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educated among the laity and clergy。〃＇3＇ Greek was the language of South
Italy and was spoken in some of its eastern towns until the thirteenth
century。 The cathedral and monastic schools served to keep alive the
ancient learning。 Monte Casino stands pre…eminent as a great hive of
students； and to the famous Regula of St。 Benedict＇4＇ we are indebted for
the preservation of many precious manuscripts。
＇3＇ H。 O。 Taylor： The Mediaeval Mind； Vol。 I； p。 251。
＇4＇ De Renzi： Storia Documentata della Scuola Medica di Salerno； 2d
ed。； Napoli； 1867； Chap。 V。
The Norman Kingdom of South Italy and Sicily was a meeting
ground of Saracens； Greeks and Lombards。 Greek； Arabic and Latin were
in constant use among the people of the capital； and Sicilian scholars of
the twelfth century translated directly from the Greek。
The famous 〃Almagest〃 of Ptolemy； the most important work of
ancient astronomy； was translated from a Greek manuscript； as early as
1160； by a medical student of Salerno。＇5＇
＇5＇ Haskins and Lockwood： Harvard Studies in Classical Philology；
1910； XXI； pp。 75…102。
About thirty miles southeast of Naples lay Salernum； which for
centuries kept alight the lamp of the old learning； and became the centre of
medical studies in the Middle Ages； well deserving its name of 〃Civitas
Hippocratica。〃 The date of foundation is uncertain； but Salernitan
physicians are mentioned as early as the middle of the ninth century； and
from this date until the rise of the universities it was not only a great
medical school； but a popular resort for the sick and wounded。 As the
scholar says in Longfellow's 〃Golden Legend〃：
Then at every season of the year There are crowds of guests and
travellers here； Pilgrims and mendicant friars and traders From the Levant；
with figs and wine； And bands of wounded and sick Crusaders； Coming
back from Palestine。
There were medical and surgical clinics； foundling hospitals； Sisters
of Charity； men and women professorsamong the latter the famous
Trotulaand apothecaries。 Dissections were carried out； chiefly upon
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
animals； and human subjects were occasionally used。 In the eleventh and
twelfth centuries； the school reached its height； and that remarkable genius；
Frederick II； laid down regulations for a preliminary study extending over
three years； and a course in medicine for five years； including surgery。 Fee
tables and strict regulations as to practice were made； and it is specifically
stated that the masters were to teach in the schools； theoretically and
practically； under the authority of Hippocrates and Galen。 The literature
from the school had a far…reaching influence。 One book on the anatomy of
the pig illustrates the popular subject for dissection at that time。＇6＇ The
writings； which are numerous； have been collected by De Renzi。＇7＇
＇6＇ 〃And dissections of the bodies of swine As likest the human form
divine。〃Golden Legend。
＇7＇ S。 de Renzi： Collectio Salernitana； 5 vols。； Naples； 1852…1859； P。
Giacosa： Magistri Salernitani； Turin； 1901。
The 〃Antidotarium〃 of Nicolaus Salernitanus； about 1100； became
the popular pharmacopoeia of the Middle Ages； and many modern
preparations may be traced to it。
The most prominent man of the school is Constantinus Africanus； a
native of Carthage； who； after numerous journeys； reached Salernum about
the middle of the eleventh century。 He was familiar with the works both of
the Greeks and of the Arabs； and it was largely through his translations
that the works of Rhazes and Avicenna became known in the West。
One work above all others spread the fame of the schoolthe Regimen
Sanitatis； or Flos Medicinae as it is sometimes called； a poem on popular
medicine。 It is dedicated to Robert of Normandy； who had been treated at
Salernum； and the lines begin： 〃Anglorum regi scripsit schola tota
Salerni 。 。 。 〃 It is a hand…book of diet and household medicine； with many
shrewd and taking sayings which have passed into popular use； such as
〃Joy； temperance and repose Slam the door on the doctor's nose。〃 A full
account of the work and the various editions of it is given by Sir
Alexander Croke；＇8＇ and the Finlayson lecture （Glasgow Medical Journal；
1908） by Dr。 Norman Moore gives an account of its introduction into the
British Isles。
＇8＇ Regimen Sanitutis Salernitanum； a Poem on the Preservation of
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Health in Rhyming Latin Verse； Oxford； D。A。 Talboys； 1830。
BYZANTINE MEDICINE
THE second great stream which carried Greek medicine to modern
days runs through the Eastern Empire。 Between the third century and the
fall of Constantinople there was a continuous series of Byzantine
physicians whose inspiration was largely derived from the old Greek
sources。 The most distinguished of these was Oribasius； a voluminous
compiler； a native of Pergamon and so close a follower of his great
townsman that he has been called 〃Galen's ape。〃 He left many works； an
edition of which was edited by Bussemaker and Daremberg。 Many facts
relating to the older writers are recorded in his writings。 He was a
contemporary； friend as well as the physician； of the Emperor Julian； for
whom he prepared an encyclopaedia of the medical sciences。
Other important Byzantine writers were Aetius and Alexander of
Tralles； both of whom were strongly under the influence of Galen and
Hippocrates。 Their materia medica was based largely upon Dioscorides。
From Byzantium we have the earliest known complete medical
manuscript； dating from the fifth centurya work of Dioscoridesone of
the most beautiful in existence。 It was prepared for Anicia Juliana；
daughter of the Emperor of the East； and is now one of the great treasures
of the Imperial Library at Vienna。＇9＇ From those early centuries till the fall
of Constantinople there is very little of interest medically。 A few names
stand out prominently； but it is mainly a blank period in our records。
Perhaps one man may be mentioned； as he had a great influence on later
agesActuarius； who lived about 1300； and whose book on the urine laid
the foundation of much of the popular uroscopy and water…casting that had
such a vogue in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries。 His work on the
subject passed through a dozen Latin editions； but is best studied in
Ideler's 〃Physici et medici Graeci minores〃 （Berlin； 1841）。
＇9＇ It has been reproduced by Seatone de Vries； Leyden； 1905； Codices
graeci et latini photographice depicti； Vol。 X。
The Byzantine stream of Greek medicine had dwindled to a very tiny
rill when the fall of Constantinople （1453） dispersed to the West many
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